re-gathering of israel :3

Although Fuller spends a good deal of time reviewing the various aspects of Israel’s re-gathering from a human perspective (and involvement), he also examines divine intervention as part of the necessary events leading to the eschatological kingdom (148 ff.). Some of the writers in the early Jewish literature envisage much human participation in the events while others place more emphasis on ‘the divine intervention of God and his heavenly agents’ (149). He begins by reviewing Daniel, noticing the prophet’s heavy reliance on divine expectation and briefly compares it to Pseudo-Philo, who advocates the nation to hope in God’s intervention alone. Interestingly, this waiting becomes somewhat of an active role in partnering with God to usher in his eschatological kingdom:

‘By resisting, waiting, and dying righteously, Israel may play an active role in precipitating God’s intervention in bringing about her restoration and other eschatological benefits (i.e., heavenly exaltation)’ (151, emphasis in original).

More in depth, this section deals with the Testament of Moses and some of the works of Josephus. Regarding the Testament of Moses, Fuller posits that the author has painted Jerusalem as the religious center (though now displaced by misguided goals) which still awaits the coming re-gathering as the necessary event of the coming eschatological kingdom (cf. 154). The role of the nations in this work are seen as being aligned with the devil - thus making way for the desire that ‘the appearance of the kingdom of God marks the end of the devil as well as the Gentiles’ (156, emphasis in original). Clearly, a more spiritual element is entered into the expectation here, to the point where divine intervention alone is able to overcome the obstacle. Perhaps this sentiment helps us understand the trend of apocalyptic literature and imagery which was present in the intertestamental and Second Temple Jewish literature.



If this ‘highly spiritualized’ understanding of the early Jewish literature is accepted, then it is a natural move that, ‘The climax of Israel’s history no longer occurs in the Land, but in heaven’ (157). This significant development of the fundamental covenant theme demonstrates a noteworthy move in the overarching theology found in eschatological expectation. Yet, Fuller maintains, the notion of Land is not abandoned. . .’but its importance is reconfigured’ (157). The notion of reinterpreting or re-approaching the covenant themes is not particularly new to the period of literature in Second Temple Judaism, but was an ongoing process of understanding the covenant promises while living in circumstances which often challenged such religious beliefs. At this point, the Land is neither abandoned nor considered lost. It is, however, reinterpreted to answer the immediate context of the Second Temple period, which is the survival of Israel (157). Furthermore, ‘The author contends that the deaths of righteous Jews are not meaningless; on the contrary, he asserts they carry redemptive value for Israel’s survivors’ (157-158). Again, the only way in which this can be considerable is in the movement of heaven - the Land is reinterpreted to the framework of divine interaction, thus re-drawing the geographic boundaries of Israel. Perhaps there is more to be found on this particular concept alone, in which Israel’s perceived ‘implicit holiness’ which is centered on the Land plays a particular role.

The next section turns to the writings of Josephus as he speaks of Israel’s passivity. Fuller asserts: ‘At the heart of his argument is the point that vengeance is not Israel’s prerogative, but God’s alone’ (158). In his (rather selective) telling of Israel’s history, Josephus recounts both negative and positive examples of God’s interaction, ranging from the punishment which comes through other nations to the deliverance through world events. Perhaps reflective of the wider thought of his time period, Josephus admonished Israel to ‘[understand] Jerusalem as the religious center of the world, even while accepting Rome as God’s designated nation to rule the world’ (160). This is definitely a both-and approach to reconcile the importance of Jerusalem and the important religous events of the day with the stark reality that world events were being driven by the political might of Rome. In essence, Josephus constructs his history (and theology) between two very important realities: Jerusalem and Rome.

From this point, Fuller turns to the theme of Israel’s Warrior King by providing a reading of the Psalms of Solomon. The perspective of this piece of literature is that sinful Jews are responsible for the dilemma which has plagued their country - which is here expressed in terms of exile.

‘The author writes on behalf of a righteous group of Jews who understand (true) Israel’s fate to lie with them. The author envisions the arrival of a Davidic messiah, who will cleanse the Land from all enemy inhabitants and lead Israel in her restoration’ (163).

From this perspective (closely linked to the messiah), the reign of yhwh over the earth is tied to the rule of his anointed earthly agent. Thus, it is up to the Davidic messiah who will ‘manifest’ and ‘inaugurate’ the rule of God himself (cf. 164). This presents a particular problem for those Jews who have submitted to the corrupt powers in Jerusalem and Rome, for they have (in contrast to the perspective of Josephus) hindered the work of God and kept Israel from achieving the eschatological kingdom. Yet, what makes the message of this work interesting is that it does not allow for a simple revolution - rather, there is an element of the divine at work, for the power of the Davidic king originates from God and not from military or political might (166). Ultimately, restoration is bound up with the appearance of the Davidic messiah and his deliverance of the people of God.

Fuller is correct to 1) question the (lacking) methodology of many approaches to understanding the messianic expectations and 2) presenting N. T. Wright’s perspective that the overarching tasks of the messiah center around the liberation of Israel and the re-establishment of the people of God (cf. 170-171). Although there are many nuances which may be (or may not, depending on criteria) identified, the basic function of the messiah is quite straightforward as emerging from the context and literature of the Second Temple period.

The final section of Chapter Two, Gentile Sovereignty and Israel’s Restoration, considers the restoration of Israel with the reality of foreign superpowers at work in the world. Is it possible that God would restore Israel through the dominance of these other nations? Fuller contends, “. . .the dominant world view of many Jews was that God (now) ruled the world through Gentile kingdoms or kings that he appointed’ (184). Thus, the perspective is that these other nations have a political and military sovereignty, but that it was granted under the ultimate sovereignty of God (as are all powers). The accommodation that is found in the perspective of the literature which is examined (Sibylline Oracles: Book Three) is that restoration is now reinterpreted to be compatible with the reality of a dominant power in the world (186).

The interesting development in the Sibylline Oracles is the expectation of an Egyptian king, which seems to be ‘on behalf of a Jewish community who wishes to convey its support of one Gentile power over and against other nations, especially Rome’ (187). Still, the Jewish nation is portrayed as central to the unfolding events of world history - with the eschatological age to appear when the temple is restored, regardless of which power dominates the political landscape (with exceptions made for Rome). The figure which is expected is ‘the king from the sun’ who would be hailed by both Gentiles and Jews as the messianic figure of the world (195). This particular development and interpretation of the Davidic messiah is a striking move - as it reinterprets the covenant promise of the Davidic lineage. But, as was mentioned earlier, it appears that the context of survival is the underlying motivating factor. And it appears that ‘many Jews seem to have accepted the inevitability of Gentile rule (196).

[Next = Chapter Three: Israel’s Restoration in Luke-Acts]

re-gathering of israel :2

Chapter Two of Michael Fuller’s work, The Restoration of Israel: Israel’s Re-gathering and the Fate of the Nations in Early Jewish Literature and Luke-Acts (Berlin: Walter deGruyter, 2006), is entitled ‘The Fate of the Nations and Other Enemies’ as it seeks to explore the nature of Israel’s position following its restoration over the surrounding nations. Again, this serves as a backdrop for the presentation of such themes in Luke-Acts. As Fuller rightly states, ‘When Israel envisioned her future, she could not do so without thinking of her enemies’ (102). This builds upon N. T. Wright’s position regarding the exile that ‘the fate of the nations was inexorably and irreversibly bound up with that of Israel’ (NTW, NTPG, 268 - Fuller, 103).

There are a number of interesting points which are raised in this chapter, bouncing between a more favorable view of the nations and one which envisions their destruction. Such views are dependent upon the origin of the perspective - different groups have nuance upon somewhat similar themes of restoration and re-gathering. And, of course, this is part of Fuller’s argument at this point of the thesis, which he explores and develops throughout the chapter.

The author begins with the defeat of the nations as perhaps the most dominant and consistent view within the early Jewish texts regarding restoration (111f.). How the defeat would play out is open to a wide range of diverse opinion, but the overarching expectation of yhwh’s subjection of the nations to the eschatological kingdom of Israel seems to remain (cf. 112). And central to this was the coming Davidic messiah who would facilitate this reality (113-114).

Fuller’s claim is that the OT in general looks to the historic restoration of Israel, which was generally expected to happen in conjunction with the defeat of the nations (114). He quotes Ralph Klein, ‘The destruction of the nations is the beginning of Israel’s salvation. No longer will the nations hurt Israel’ (115). With this statement, Fuller’s thesis makes clear the underlying link between the restoration of Israel and the defeat of the nations as an ultimate outcome. However, the historical circumstances must also accommodate for a certain level of acceptance of the nations as part of the divine will for the overarching restoration (116-117). Most notably, the author states, is the emerging acceptance of the belief that God has appointed Persia for carrying out that which is necessary for Israel’s restoration, specifically the divine punishment which came from the exile. Such is God’s appointment of Persia ‘to oversee Israel’s restoration and to rule over the world’ (117).

The fifth section of this chapter builds upon these emerging themes while exploring the perceived role of Israel as a military entity in the context of the nations. Specifically, he deals with 1 Maccabees and The War Scroll (with an excursus on the conversion of the Gentiles, which I will take up another posting). In the writings found in 1 Maccabees there is a focus forward to ‘a more definitive and exalted’ era found in the future age (119). The political motivation which is exhibited here is drawn from a zeal to honor God’s covenant and to bring about the messianic kingdom through military means. As Fuller points out, the notion of honoring the covenant is found in the scope of the Maccabean revolution: ‘The author of 1 Maccabees understands Israel’s enemies to be both the nations and sinful Jews’ (122, emphasis mine). All of this is built upon the hope of a re-established temple (home to the re-gathered people) as the symbol for the eschatological kingdom (123). Thus, the desire is for the righteous - Jew and Gentile - who will participate in the eschatological (re-gathered) covenant kingdom.

[skip “5.2 Excursus: Conversion of Gentiles as Subjugation” to be taken up later]

The War Scroll is discussed next, showing (as one would expect from the Qumran community) a more cosmic-oriented description of the coming victory (135ff.). Of special note is the Kittim, described by Fuller as the archenemy of Israel which would emerge at the end of the war (138). The War Scroll also looks to the coming of a heavenly army which would join with those in Israel to bring about the final era of Israel - an eschatological and renewed Israel (cf. 141-143). ‘. . .the time of Israel’s eschatological victory over her enemies is also the time of her final ingathering’ (144, emphasis in original).

From this point of the chapter, Fuller looks at divine intervention as an important part of the story. This will be our starting point in the next post.

re-gathering of israel :1

Michael Fuller’s book, The Restoration of Israel: Israel’s Re-gathering and the Fate of the Nations in Early Jewish Literature and Luke-Acts (Berlin: Walter deGruyter, 2006), examines the motif of exile and restoration as seen through the Jewish hopes of re-gathering as it provides the context for early Christian expectation, especially in Luke-Acts.



In Chapter One Fuller reviews Early Jewish Literature (EJL) and the theme of re-gathering Israel as a part of the eschatological restoration of the nation. He subdivides the chapter into discussions of (1) Israel’s historic re-gathering, (2) future re-gatherings, (3) the re-gathering as return from the Diaspora, (4) the re-gathering of Israel from within Israel, and (5) Philo’s approach to seeing Israel’s return as a symbolic motif of a spiritual journey to God.

The discussion on Israel’s Historic Re-gathering (15-23) focuses primarily upon the prophetic messages of Haggai & Zechariah and Ezra-Nehemiah. Fuller asserts that the message found in these writings suggest a hope of a “greater conclusion” than was experienced in the exilic return from Persia. The return itself seems to have been bound to certain events which helped define the eschatological era - such as the rebuilding of the temple. While Haggai holds to this hope, Zechariah seems to point more toward a greater expectation which came out of the event (16). For Ezra-Nehemiah there are more theological problems which arise from those they encounter in the Land than those who remain in Persia (19). Yet there is still an emphasis on a rebuilt temple as a precursor for that which is to come before the eschatological age. Although Fuller’s thesis is strongly built upon the idea of a specific definition of the re-gathering of Israel, I question his endorsement of Bedford to say that it is not residence in the Land that brings about their legitimate return from exile (20-21), to this point see his discussion on Diaspora. Understanding the issue, this is perhaps still too simplistic a statement as there still seem to be definite ties to the return and re-gathering to the Land (and the temple) which continue to define Israel’s expectations. Interestingly, exile is often seen as a prerequisite rite of passage before the experience of restoration (22).

The next section speaks more directly to the future re-gathering of Israel, in which the motif of exile-return becomes a popular pattern to the notion of restoration (23). Fuller acknowledges the little attention which has been given to the variety of interpretations on this aspect of re-gathering, yet reserves much of his own comment for discussions that will follow.

In exploring the EJL Fuller moves to a discussion of the re-gathering as a return of the Diaspora, an important theme for this topic. There seems to be a distinction between “negative” and “positive” views of the exile. As Jews found themselves in the Diaspora they increasingly found ways to survive and thrive while retaining their own Jewish identity. Consistently, one finds the focus on particular geography as part of the theology and narrative which supports Fuller, “The underlying assumption in these passages is that geography matters, for it is profoundly theological” (26). Ultimately, there is a belief that until everyone who is in exile returns from exile there will be no final restoration of Israel (cf. 26) - even those who remain ‘in the Land’ will be considered in exile.
Out of this, then, emerges the idea that faithfulness is indeed possible while living in the Diaspora, demonstrating the perspective that deliverance might be experienced (28). Furthermore, the nations in which the Jews are scattered have their fate connected with that of those in exile, as Fuller points to from his reading of Tobit 13 (that God “will have mercy unto the nations where you have been scattered”) (29). All of this points toward, contends Fuller, a better and more complete eschatological temple as part of the understanding for restoration and renewal (cf. 31f.). The primary characteristic of this temple (in the context of re-gathering) is that all of the righteous from Israel and the nations will make “pilgrimage to the place of God’s abode” (32).

A similar perspective is seen in Sirach, where Israel is linked closely to the welfare of the other nations and is identified as a source of great beneficial wisdom to the world (34). A point which is slightly different from the overview given of Tobit is that the restoration of Israel comes after the defeat of the nations in Sirach (cf. 37). Although there is the ability to benefit and prosper, to remain faithful to Judaism while in exile, ultimately exile must end for true restoration to occur. This completion of exile comes through the defeat of the nations. Of special note for Fuller is the role of Elijah (41f.). Looking to Elijah, the book of Sirach awaits for the appearance of the prophet at the appointed time to “reestablish the tribes of Jacob.” Thus, tied into the expectations of Israel is the definite appointment of a time when Israel would be restored and re-gathered as an end to exile. The overarching theme, however (here and in Maccabees), is that if there is any portion of Israel which is in exile, then all of Israel is in exile and awaiting an end to the shared condition of the nation (47). In connection to the Abrahamic covenant, there is an integral bond between the people of God and the Land - but perhaps it may be said that a shift was underway about who would occupy the land itself.

The next section of the chapter seeks to explore the question of who would be participating in the re-gathering of Israel. Fuller begins with Wright, who tightly weaves the themes of forgiveness of sins and the end of exile together (cf. 49). Is Wright on the correct path with this? Perhaps, but only if one recognizes that it is not simply equating one with the other; if the exile was a result of Israel’s sin and unfaithfulness then a return from exile would indicate that Israel had been forgiven of their sins. But when Jesus forgives individuals, Wright seems to say that he declares that the exile has/is occuring at present. It is interesting to consider when Jesus marked the return from exile - different scholars have different points of view.

A distinct development within the theme of re-gathering, which Fuller addresses, is that a marking of of Israel from within Israel begins to occur - the developing remnant theology of those who will return from exile (cf. 51f.). Fuller examines the Damascus Document to illustrate the notion of a ‘true return from Babylon’ where those who are returning are recounted in light of their exile to demonstrate a redemptive value of their return (55-60). This ties into the theme mentioned above that an experience of exile was somewhat expected in order for true restoration to occur. Further demonstrating this is Fuller’s examination of the Animal Apocalypse of 1 Enoch, where God’s withdrawal from Israel is a key portion of the story (cf. 62f.). This will lead to the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple and demonstrate that Israel’s geo-political problems have a heavenly origin as her unfaithfulness leads her to exile. This, however, is seen by Fuller to be a negative counterpart for the positive portion of re-gathering (69), perhaps interpreted in a more deterministic outlook since he mentions how the nations receive no eternal judgment within the account (71). One cannot help but wonder if this point is indeed accurate to the general belief of Israel, since the destruction of the nations remains such a powerful idea.

What is seen quite clearly is the destruction of the designation between Jew and Gentile. This has been abandoned for a clearer picture of the true people of God who emerge from exile. Thus, the exiled tribes are not “lost” (75) in the sense that they can achieve faithfulness and participate in the re-gathering. The remnant becomes representative of all Israel and indicates the (small) faithful who will be gathered at the messianic age (78-79). When the messiah comes to Israel, he achieves victory as the nations are destroyed - brought about by his re-gathering of Israel over the nations which had kept Israel in exile (cf. 82). What restoration ultimately means - coming out of this discussion - is the “imminent appearing or uncovering of what is already present in Ezra’s time” (83). The ultimate establishment of that which Israel already confesses: the reign of God over his people and his kingdom.

At this point, Fuller discusses the nuanced approach of understanding exile given by Philo. He mentions up front that his notion is not necessarily representative of the nation of Israel as a whole, but is nevertheless important to the development of Jewish exilic and restoration thought. Since I agree that Philo is quite nuanced in his approach and understanding, I will skip over this section of the chapter for the present and will return to Philo in a later post.

More than a political and geographic problem, the exile of the Israel was a spiritual problem which was to expected to be solved with the return and re-gathering of the true Israel. Chapter Two of Fuller’s study, “The Fate of the Nations and Other Enemies,” will be reviewed shortly.